SupervisionTodayRobbins-Ch.1-16TELS334032-7-182.ppt

Supervision Today
by Stephen P. Robbins

TELS 3340
Organizational Leadership & Supervision

Presented by

Dr. Jerry S. Evans

Instructional Associate Professor

University of Houston

College of Technology

Office: Room 339 T2 Building Email: Phone: 713-743-9434

Ch. 1
Supervision Fundamentals

Organizations and their Levels

Top Management

Middle Management

Supervisors (First-Line Management)

Operative Employees (employees of all levels below supervisors)

Every organization shares three characteristics:

Organizations have a purpose (expressed as goals).

Organizations are composed of people.

Organizations develop a systematic structure.

Ch. 1
Supervision Fundamentals

What is Management?

Management is the process of getting things done, effectively and efficiently, through other people.

Effectiveness – Getting the right thing done.

Efficiency – Getting things done using the least amount of resources.

The Four Management Functions (by Henri Fayol)

Planning

Organizing

Leading

Controlling

Ch. 1
Supervision Fundamentals

Strategic Planning

Plans developed by top managers.

Plans developed with an eye toward competition.

Plans developed for the “longer” term (5+ years).

Does a Supervisor Need to Be a Coach?

Yes, supervisors need to coach their direct reports.

Transition from Employee to Supervisor

Usually, a very difficult transition. It is harder to do this than to transition from supervisor to middle management, or from middle management to top management.

Ch. 1
Supervision Fundamentals

Four Critical Competencies Supervisors Must Possess:

Technical competency (more critical at supervisory level)

Interpersonal competency (critical at all levels)

Conceptual competency (see Exhibit below)

Political competency (see Exhibit below)

How Do Competencies Shift by Managerial Level?

Top

Middle

Supervisor

Technical Interpersonal Conceptual Political

Ch. 1
Supervision Fundamentals

What Else is Critical for You to Know about Supervising?

Formal Power

Legitimate Power – power vested by one’s position in the organization.

Reward Power – power exercised because of ability to “reward” someone.

Coercive Power – power exercised by one’s ability to “manipulate” (coerce).

Informal Power

Expert Power – power exercised over others because they perceive the power figure to be an “expert.”

Referent Power – power resulting from the power figure being well-liked.

Charismatic Power – power resulting from the power figure being held in such high esteem (because of personality, charm, intelligence, beliefs, values, etc.) that followers will be willing to follow “any” directives. This is the most powerful form of power. It taps the “belief” system of followers.

Ch. 2
Supervision Challenges

Global Competitiveness

Many so-called “American” products are made internationally.

Lower cost labor found in foreign countries is a major reason.

Workforce Diversity

The composition of the workforce to include all ethnicities, genders, religions, sexual preferences, etc. (non-discrimination).

Supervisors must be careful not to violate any HR laws (including demands of the largest group in the workforce – the baby boomers).

Baby Boomers (1946-1964)

Generation X (1965-1980)

Generation Y (1981-2002)

Ch. 2
Supervision Challenges

Why are Organizations Doing More with Less?

Downsizing – a reduction in workforce (the fastest way to impact the bottom line in an organization).

Studies show that 2/3 of companies that downsize have “employee morale” problems. Employees are “less loyal” to companies.

Why the Emphasis on “Continuous Improvement”?

To meet customer needs in terms of “perceived” higher quality.

How does Work Process Engineering (Re-engineering) differ from Continuous Improvement?

Work Process Engineering (“Revolutionary” Change – radical, fast)

Continuous Improvement (“Evolutionary” Change – constant, slow)

Ch. 2
Supervision Challenges

Contingent Workforce in the U.S.

The labor force has started shifting away from traditional, full-time jobs toward contingent workers (part-time, temporary, contract jobs)

Up to 40% of all U.S. workers are contingent workers today.

Contingent workers lack the stability and loyalty of permanent workers because they do not “identify” with the organization.

Supervisors need to let employees talk about their feelings.

Many employees are “stressed out” because of downsizing, continuous improvement, work process engineering, and other “destabilizing” initiatives by companies.

Employee “loyalty” has become an issue for companies because of these unsettling issues.

Ch. 2
Supervision Challenges

What is a Socially Responsible Organization?

Social Responsibility – A responsibility an organization has to society.

Social Obligation – This is the “minimum” response an organization puts forth to meet the needs of society (poor response to society).

Social Responsiveness – This is the “proactive,” response an organization makes to “go beyond just what is required” to meet the needs of society (excellent response to society).

Most organizations exhibit “Social Responsiveness” in their operations, a few do not.

Examples of “Socially Responsive” organizations are those that promote and support fundraising events for the community at large.

Ch. 2
Supervision Challenges

What is Ethics?

Ethics – Rules or principles that define right or wrong, good or bad, and who will be benefitted or harmed by any given action.

Ethics can be determined by culture. What may be considered ethical in a given society or foreign country, may NOT be considered ethical in the U.S. (for example, “buying” business by the seller by “paying” the client to acquire his /her products or services is considered “unethical” in the U.S., where in some foreign countries, it is considered a “cost” of doing business, and NOT a violation of ethics.

Oftentimes, unethical behavior is illegal. Most of the time, illegal behavior is unethical. An example of behavior that is unethical, but not illegal, would be exhibiting “unfairness” to one person over another in most situations (business dealings, school matters, or personal matters).

Code of Ethics – An organization’s formal document on ethical behavior.

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

What is formal planning?

Specific goals are formulated, committed to writing, and made available to other organizational members.

Planning and goal setting are like “two sides of the same coin.” You cannot have one without the other.

What is Productivity? Know the important ratio (formula) provided below:

Output

Productivity = _______________________________

Labor + Capital + Materials

Productivity – the Outputs of goods and services, divided by the Inputs needed to generate the Outputs.

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

Productivity can be adopted at three levels:

The Individual

The Group

The Total Organization

U.S. productivity is steady, or rising, and the United States has retained a top spot among industrialized nations.

The U. S. productivity makes the U.S. economy stronger.

Jobs have been created because of this strong economy resulting from our high productivity.

U.S. companies are increasing in productivity, relative to the world.

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

What is the Breadth of Planning?

Strategic Planning – done by top management, done with an eye toward competition, and done for the “longer” range (5+ years), covers the entire organization, and sets the direction for all other planning.

Tactical Planning – done by lower levels of management (middle management and supervisory level), and covers “specific” details on how overall goals are to be achieved, done for short term (usually, less than 1 year).

How do Planning Time Frames Differ?

Short-Term Plan – Less than 1 year.

Intermediate-Term Plan – 1 to 5 years.

Long-Term Plan – 5 years or more.

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

Benchmarking

Involves searching for (and incorporating) the “best practices” among competitors and non-competitors that lead to superior performance.

Six Sigma

A philosophy and measurement process developed in the 1980s by Motorola. The premise behind Six Sigma is to “design, measure, analyze, and control” the input side of manufacturing.

It uses statistical models, coupled with quality tools.

Levels of Six Sigma:

Black Belt (highest level)

Green Belt (second highest level)

Many major organizations implement Six Sigma because of its focus on quality manufacturing processes.

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

Standing Plans

Plans that can be used over and over by managers faced with recurring situations.

Three types of standing plans:

Policies

Procedures

Rules

Budgets

A numerical plan that expresses anticipated results in dollar terms for a specific time period for people, tasks, and organizational groups.

Budgets are used as planning devices, as well as a control mechanisms.

Budgets specify task importance, and how resources are to be allocated.

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

Scheduling

Gantt Chart – A bar chart with time on the horizontal axis, and activities to be scheduled on the vertical axis.

PERT (Performance Evaluation Review Technique) Chart – A diagram that depicts the sequence of activities needed to complete a given project, and the time or costs associated with each activity. This is a “timeline” chart depicting the activities that must be completed by certain times in order to complete a project at a given time.

The PERT Chart was created by the U.S. Navy.

The PERT Chart is used in most Project Management initiatives because of its focus on completing certain phases of a project by the specified dates (timelines).

Most PERT users tend to add in a “buffers” (extra time) at each phase of the specified completion dates so as not to incur “missed” deadlines.

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

Goal Setting

A system by which employees jointly determine specific performance goals with their supervisors. Progress towards goals is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress (also commonly referred to as Management by Objectives or M.B.O.).

S.M.A.R.T. Goals (all goals should be S.M.A.R.T. goals).

S – Goals should be Specific.

M – Goals should be Measurable.

A – Goals should be Aligned.

R – Goals should be Reachable.

T – Goals should be Time Bound.

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

Self-Fulfilling Prophesy

Supervisors communicate positive or negative expectations consciously and unconsciously; subordinates “pick up” on these expectations, and subordinates behavior is generally “consistent with” their perceived expectations of their supervisor.

Balanced Scorecard

A strategic planning and management system used to translate and align business activities to the vision statement and strategic plan. The balanced Scorecard looks at four business areas:

Financial processes

Customer processes

Internal processes

Innovation/Growth processes

Ch. 3
Planning and Goal Setting

The Entrepreneurial Supervisor

Entrepreneur – An individual who is a “risk taker,” who starts a given business from “scratch,” and who is willing to take large risks to make it successful.

Intrapreneur – An individual who exhibits many of the same behaviors as entrepreneurs, but who has the organizational support and financial backing from his/her organization to help them succeed. Much less risky than most entrepreneurial initiatives.

The Business Plan – A written document that summarizes a business opportunity, and defines how, when, where that opportunity is to be acted upon.

Ch. 4
Organizing

Organizing

Organizing is arranging and grouping jobs , allocating resources, and assigning work in a department so that activities can be accomplished as planned.

Work Specialization

Work specialization is the process of breaking down a job into a number of steps, with each step being completed by a different individual.

Span of Control

Span of control is the number of employees a supervisor can efficiently and effectively control, and who also report “directly” to that supervisor. Note: also called the “Span of Management.”

The “optimal “ number of employees to supervise is likely somewhere between 5 and 30, depending on the amount of direct supervision needed.

Ch. 4
Organizing

Narrow Span of Control Wide Span of Control

(Tall Structure) (Flat Structure)

“Many” of vertical levels “Fewer “ vertical levels

Ch. 4
Organizing

Chain of Command

The continuous line of authority that extends from upper organizational levels to the lowest levels, and clarifies who reports to whom. This is also called the “Scalar Chain.”

Unity of Command

The organizational principle that sates that an employee should have “only one” supervisor at any given time to whom they are responsible.

Authority

The rights inherent in a supervisory position to give orders and expect orders to be obeyed.

Line Authority

The authority that entitles a supervisor to direct the work of their employees, and make certain decisions without consulting others.

Ch. 4
Organizing

Staff Authority

Supports line authority by advising, counseling, servicing, and assisting, but there is no authority over employees in “line” positions.

Organizational Chart

It shows (with lines) who (Staff Authority Position)

reports to whom.

(Line Authority Positions)

Ch. 4
Organizing

Functional Authority

Control over individuals outside of one’s own direct areas of responsibility. (e.g., Vice President of Human Resources at central headquarters has “functional” authority over all Human Resources personnel throughout the entire organization at all geographic locations).

Responsibility

Supervisory jobs come with authority, and they also come with responsibility (the expectation by upper management for managers to achieve the stated goals assigned to a given manager or supervisor).

Centralization

Retaining decision making authority in the hands of top management.

Decentralization

Pushing down decision making authority throughout the organization.

Ch. 4
Organizing

Departmentalization – Grouping departments based on work functions, product or service, target customer or client, geographic territory, or the process used to transform inputs into outputs.

The Five Ways to Departmentalize:

Functional Departmentalization – Grouping activities into independent units based on functions performed ( see Exhibit 4-3).

Product Departmentalization – Grouping activities into independent units based on products produced (see Exhibit 4-4).

Customer Departmentalization – Grouping activities into independent units based on types of customers served (see Exhibit 4-5).

Geographic Departmentalization – Grouping activities into independent units based on geography or territory ( see Exhibit 4-6).

Process Departmentalization – Grouping activities into independent units based on based on a given production process (see exhibit 4-7).

Ch. 4
Organizing

Organizational Structures – How organizations are designed (in terms of grouping of employees) to facilitate its marketing focus, or the production of its products or services.

Simple Structure – A “flat” organizational structure, low in complexity, with authority usually centralized in one person, and few vertical levels.

Functional Structure – Employees grouped regarding to their functions (see Exhibit 4-3, showing “economic” functions of organization).

Divisional Structure – An organization consisting of self-contained units (see Exhibit 4-4, showing product “divisions”).

Matrix Structure – A structure that combines elements of “functional” and “product” departmentalization, creating a “dual” chain of command, utilizing “project teams,” with a project manager who has “temporary” authority over project team members until project is completed (see Exhibit 4-8).

Ch. 4
Organizing

Organizing Employees by Specifying Tasks

Job Descriptions – A written statement of job duties, work conditions, and operating responsibilities (see Exhibit 4-10).

Note: It is desirable for employees to have “accurate” and “up-to-date” job descriptions to facilitate the performance appraisal process. The job description should outline employees’ current job duties and responsibilities (what they are expected to do, how it is to be done, and when it is to be completed). Supervisors need this type of information on employees to make accurate and fair performance appraisals.

Delegation – Assignment of duties, with accompanying authority, responsibility, and accountability for completion of tasks.

Note: It is essential for supervisors to provide the “necessary authority” to a subordinate when delegating tasks, and the supervisor must “inform” all parties affected by this delegation.

Ch. 5
Staffing and Recruiting

Human Resource Management – The process of finding, hiring, training, and retaining employees in the workplace.

The Three Main Tasks of Human Resources in the Workplace:

Attract

Retain

Motivate

Affirmative Action – An “active effort” to recruit, select, train, and promote members of “protected” groups, in an effort to prevent discrimination of individuals in those groups. However, individuals of “non-protected” groups must also NOT be discriminated against. Employers should make a concerted effort to hire the “best available candidate,” while making an effort NOT to exclude individuals in protected or non-protected groups.

Employment Planning – Assessing current and future human resources needs and developing a plan to meet those needs.

Ch. 5
Staffing and Recruiting

Human Resource Inventory – Database that lists pertinent information of all employees in the organization (names, education, training, prior employer, languages spoken, and other relevant employee information).

Recruitment – The process of locating, identifying, and attracting capable candidates from the “available labor market.”

Available Labor Market – The area within approximately 60-70 miles from a given organization’s place of business. Note: Most employees usually will not travel more than this distance each day.

Online Recruiting – Four out of five companies use the Internet for recruiting today.

Supervisor’s Options for “Downsizing” – Firing, layoff, attrition, transfer reduced workweek, early retirement, job sharing.

Selection Process – The hiring process, seeks to determine the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) and motivation of candidates.

Ch. 5
Staffing and Recruiting

Reliability – The extent to which a given assessment instrument measures the same thing consistently over time.

Validity – The extent to which an assessment instrument tests what it proposes to test.

Performance-Simulation Tests – Selection instruments based on “actual” job behaviors, and work sampling.

The Big Five Personality Model Factors:

Extroversion

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Emotional Stability

Openness to Experience

The “Personal Interview” for a Job is Highly Important?

The “Behavioral” Description Interview – Highly favored by HR professionals. It asks candidate to “describe” a past job behavior (or task they performed).

Ch. 5
Staffing and Recruiting

Realistic Job Preview – A job interview that provides both positive and negative information about the job and the company.

Orientation – The process intended to familiarize new employees with the job, the work unit, and the organization as a whole.

On-the-Job-Training (OJT) – Most training takes place “on-the-job” (OJT.

Performance Appraisals – Supervisor’s appraising the performance of employees. Most organizations conduct these annually. Today, most organizations “tie” pay to performance.

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace – Any “unwanted” activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment. Two Types:

“Quid Pro Quo”– It means “this-for -that” (Making threats to punish, or offer to provide rewards to one employee by another employee in order to acquire certain favors of a sexual nature).

“Hostile Environment” – Creating a “sexually hostile environment” in the workplace by one employee in which it has an adverse impact on another employee (e.g., telling unwanted off-color jokes, sending pornography to another, etc.).

Ch. 6
Controlling

The Control Process – Three Steps:

Measure Actual Performance

Compare Results with Standards

Take Corrective Action

How to Measure Actual Performance:

Personal Observation

Statistical Reports

Oral Reports

Written Reports

Comparing Results with Standards

Make Decisions on What are “Acceptable” Ranges in Variations from Standards.

Taking Corrective Action

Adjust Actual Performance to Meet Standards, and/or

Change the Standards

Ch. 6
Controlling

Types of Controls

Preventive Control – A type of control that anticipates and prevents undesirable outcomes.

Concurrent Controls – A type of control that takes place while an activity is in progress.

Corrective Control – A type of control that provides feed back after an activity is finished to prevent future deviations.

Inputs Outputs

Work Process Activities

Preventive Control Concurrent Control Corrective Control

Exhibit 6 – 7

Ch. 6
Controlling

The Focus of Control – Most of Supervisors’ Control Efforts are Directed at Four Areas:

Costs – Cost reduction is a major concern in businesses.

Inventories – “Just-in-Time” Inventory System (Inventory items arrive when they are needed in the production process, and not stocked).

Quality – Identifying and incorporating “best practices” for customers.

Safety – The “No. 1” concern for all organizations.

Other Control Issues

Value Chain Management – Managing the “entire” sequence of integrated activities and information about product flows from start to finish.

Supply Chain Management – An “internally oriented” process that focuses on the efficient flow of incoming materials to the organization.

Employee Resistance – Employees resist having “too much” control.

Ch. 6
Controlling

Employee Theft – Up to 85% of organizational theft and fraud is committed by employees, not outsiders.

Sarbanes-Oxley Act – Establishes procedures for public companies regarding how they handle and report their financial reports.

* Top management (CEO and CFO must personally certify the organization’s financial reports.

* The organization must have procedures for audit reports.

* CEO and CFO must reimburse the organization.

* Personal loans or lines of credit for executives are now prohibited.

* The penalty for falsely stating the corporate financial position can result in a fine of

$1 Million and imprisonment of up to 10 years. And if it is determined that the executive’s

statement was “willful,” the sentence can be “doubled.”

* The act also provided for federal protection for “Whistleblowing” to prevent violations.

Ch. 7
Problem Analysis and
Decision Making

The Decision Making Process (7 Steps):

Identify the problem.

Collect relevant information.

Develop alternatives.

Evaluate each alternative.

Select the best alternative.

Implement the decision.

Follow up and evaluate.

Bounded Rationality – Making the best decision one can make with the information available at the time.

Ch. 7
Problem Analysis and
Decision Making

Supervisors Face Three Conditions of Decision Making: Certainty, Risk, and Uncertainty

Certainty – Certainty exists when the outcome and every alternative are known.

Risk – The difference between “certainty” and “uncertainty.” One must estimate the likelihood of certain outcomes.

Uncertainty – One is not certain and cannot even make a reasonable estimate about the outcomes.

Ch. 7
Problem Analysis and
Decision Making

The Four Decision Making Styles (Exhibit 7-5):

Directive Style – Low tolerance for ambiguity, and seek rationality.

Analytic Style – Greater tolerance for ambiguity than directive style.

Conceptual Style – Broad outlook, consider many alternatives, long-range focus, and good at finding creative solutions.

Behavioral Style – Work well with others, concerned with achievement of their employees.

Analytic Conceptual

High

Tolerance for

Ambiguity

Low

Directive Behavioral

Rational Intuitive

Way of Thinking

Ch. 7
Problem Analysis and
Decision Making

Common Error Committed by Decision Makers:

Availability Heuristic – The tendency of supervisors to base their judgments on “readily available” information.

Representative Heuristic – Supervisors tend to match the “likelihood of an occurrence” with something they are familiar with.

Escalation of Commitment – An increased commitment to a previous decision “despite” negative information, and possible negative consequences.

How Problems Differ

Programmed Decision – There is a “decision rule.” A “repetitive” decision that can be handled by a “routine” approach (a recurring issue).

Nonprogrammed Decision – There is no “decision rule.” A decision must be “custom-made” to solve a unique, and non-recurring problem.

Ch. 7
Problem Analysis and
Decision Making

Advantages to Group Decision Making:

Provides more complete information.

Generates more alternatives.

Increases acceptance of a solution.

Increases legitimacy of decision.

Disadvantages to Group Decision Making

Time consuming.

Minority domination.

Pressure to conform.

Ambiguous responsibility.

Groupthink – Occurs easily in “highly” cohesive groups, and more in homogeneous groups which tend to “sub-optimize” in decision making.

Ch. 7
Problem Analysis and
Decision Making

Brainstorming – Generating a large “quantity” if ideas to resolve a problem or generate a solution. “Quality” of ideas not discussed until all ideas recorded and reviewed by group.

Three Views on Ethics in Decision Making

The Utilitarian View – A view in which decisions are made solely on the basis of their outcomes or consequences. (Does the decision provide the “greatest good for the greatest number?)

The Rights View – A view that calls for individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and rights as set for in documents such as the Bill of Rights. (Does the decision respect the rights of the individuals affected?)

The Justice View – A view that requires individuals to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially so that there is an equitable distribution of benefits and costs. (Is the decision fair and equitable?)

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Motivation – The willingness to do something conditioned on the action’s ability to satisfy some need for the individual. (An unsatisfied need motivates behavior. Once the need is satisfied, motivation tends to become reduced or eliminated.)

Need – A physiological or psychological deficiency that makes certain outcomes seem desirable.

Motivation

Unsatisfied Increased Drive Decreased Satisfied

Need Tension Tension Need

Needs

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Personality Measures

Internal Locus of Control – People believe they control their own destiny.

External Locus of Control – People believe their lives are controlled by forces outside their own control.

Machiavellianism – Manipulative behavior based on the belief that the ends justify the means (that “any” behavior is justified to achieve one’s desires).

Self-Esteem – The degree to which one likes or dislikes himself or herself.

Self-Monitoring – The ability to adjust one’s behavior to changing situations.

Risk Propensity – A willingness to take chances, characterized by rapid decision making with the use of less information.

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Emotional Intelligence (5 Dimensions):

Self-Awareness – An awareness of self, what or how you are feeling.

Self-Management – Ability to manage one’s emotions and impulses.

Self-Motivation – An ability to persist in the face of failures or setbacks.

Empathy – Ability to sense how others are feeling or perceiving.

Social Skills – An ability to manage one’s own social and those of others.

How important is Emotional Intelligence?

Supervision skills are closely tied to Emotional Intelligence skills. Leadership skills are also tied to Emotional Intelligence skills. Many theorists propose that having well-developed Emotional Intelligence is even more important than standard intelligence in one’s ability to lead and manage people.

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory

Satisfied needs no longer motivate. Lower level needs are satisfied first.

If higher level needs become unsatisfied, one will revert to the next lower

level and satisfy those needs.

Self-Actualization Needs

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

(Relationships)

Safety/Security Needs

Physiological Needs

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Theory X-Theory Y View of Human Nature (by Douglas McGregor)

Theory X – A belief that people dislike work and will avoid work whenever and wherever possible.

Theory Y – A belief that people do not dislike work, and as long as it is meaningful and rewarding, people actually like work.

McGregor supports the Theory Y approach, and proposes that most people also support the “Theory Y” approach.

McGregor proposes that participation in decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations are factors that maximize employee motivation – and an embracement of Theory Y.

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

The opposite of “Satisfaction” is not “Dissatisfaction.” but rather “No Satisfaction.” And that the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is not “Satisfaction,” but rather “No Dissatisfaction.” Herzberg proposed these are on two separate motivational levels (Exhibit 8-3).

Traditional View

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s View

(Motivators) (Hygiene Factors)

Satisfaction No Satisfaction No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

David McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory

Need for Achievement (nAch)

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Need for Power (nPow)

These different needs provide the following perspectives:

Individuals with a high Need for Achievement (nAch), prefer jobs with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk.

Individuals with a high Need for Affiliation (nAff), prefer working in groups and situations where social relationships are important.

Individuals with high Need for Power (nPow), prefer jobs in which they have much control, or entrepreneurial ventures where their achievement will be obvious by their success, and affiliation is not that necessary.

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Equity Theory (by J. Stacy Adams) – The concept that employees perceive what they can get from a job situation (outcomes), in relation to what they put into the job (inputs), and then compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of others (their “comparison other”)

If there are “perceived” inequities when they compare their input-outcome ratios with their “comparison-other,” then the employee takes the following steps to rationalize his/her perceived inequity:

Ask the boss for more money.

Don’t work as hard to make up for this “perceived inequity” in pay.

Change their “comparison other.”

Quit their job.

Note: This is a very common occurrence in most organizations.

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Expectancy Theory (by Victor Vroom) – A theory that individuals analyze the relationships between their effort – performance, performance – rewards, and rewards – personal goals. They then consider their personal effort which is tied to their expectations that these goals can be achieved.

Three factors are involved:

Expectancy (Effort – Performance) – Belief that one’s effort will lead to performance.

Instrumentality (Performance – Rewards) – Belief that performance will lead to a reward.

Positive Valence (Rewards – Personal Goals) – Belif that rewards will satisfy personal goals.

Note: If all of the above happens, positive valence occurs and behavior will be repeated. If not, negative valence occurs, and behavior will stop.

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Job Characteristics Model (by Hackman and Oldham).

There are five key characteristics that define a job and together they constitute the core dimensions of any job.

Skill Variety – The degree to which a job requires a variety of activities.

Task Identity – The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.

Task Significance – The degree to which the job has meaning to the employee and others.

Autonomy – The degree to which the job allows the employee to have any authority (or input) with regard to how the job will be performed.

Feedback – The degree to which the employee receives any level of information regarding the effectiveness of the job and his/her performance.

Ch. 8
Motivating Followers

Motivation Challenges for Today’s Supervisors

Culture is Important – Everyone needs to be treated equally and respectfully.

Pay-for-Performance – In today’s organizations, employees are paid for their performance. Higher performers should be paid more.

Competency-Based Pay – Employees are paid according to their competency. More competent employees should be paid more.

Work-Life Balance – Employees in today’s workplaces are expecting more “Work-Life Balance.” They are demanding that employers become sensitive to their person life needs away from the workplace (childcare issues, spouse needs, eldercare needs, vacation time, reduced overtime requirements, etc.)

Ch. 9
Leading Followers

Leadership – The ability an individual demonstrates to influence others to act in a particular way through a compelling vision, direction, inspiration, motivation, guidance, and support.

Leadership and management are NOT the same.

Leadership involves getting people to follow directives “willingly.”

Management involves getting people to follow directives using formal organizational power.

Six Traits of Effective Leaders (Exhibit 9-1)

Drive

Desire to influence others

Honesty and moral character

Self-confidence

Intelligence

Relevant knowledge

Ch. 9
Leading Followers

Charismatic Leadership – Influencing people to behave in certain ways because of the leader’s “charismatic power,” magnetism, and personal characteristics such as:

Compelling vision.

Ability to articulate that vision.

Willingness to take risks to achieve that vision.

Sensitivity to environmental constraints and follower needs.

Behaviors that are oftentimes “out of the ordinary.”

Charismatic Power is the strongest type of power.

Strong charismatic leaders oftentimes appeal to the “innermost feelings” of their followers to follow them in spite of any obvious harm and consequences that may result from following those directives.

Charismatic leadership may be learned by projecting a powerful, confident, and dynamic presence, and developing a captivating voice tone.

Ch. 9
Leading Followers

Visionary Leadership – The ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, attractive vision of the future that grows out of, and improves on, the present.

Necessary Skills of a Visionary Leader:

An ability to explain the vision to others.

An ability to express the vision in terms of required actions.

An ability to inspire others to embrace this vision.

Essential Skills Needed to Become an Effective Leader

Technical Skills.

Conceptual Skills.

Networking Skills.

Human Relations Skills.

Note: Effective leaders must have a “working knowledge” of all of these skills.

Ch. 9
Leading Followers

Leadership Behaviors and Styles

Task-Centered Leader – Emphasizes the technical or task aspects of a job.

Autocratic Leader – A “taskmaster” who is highly authoritative (in-charge).

People-Centered Leader – Emphasizes value of interpersonal relationships.

Participative Leader – Actively seeks input from followers for activities.

Consultative-Participative Leader – Seeks input from followers, but makes the final decision using this input from followers.

Democratic-Participative Leader – Seeks input from followers, and allows group to make decisions.

Free-Rein Leader – Gives followers total autonomy to make decisions that will affect them.

Ch. 9
Leading Followers

Situational Leadership (by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard)

Leaders provide direction for followers depending on the followers “readiness” to complete certain tasks (Exhibit 9-3).

Participating Selling

Delegating Telling

R4 R3 R2 R1

Readiness of Employees

Ch. 9
Leading Followers

Credibility and Trust in Leadership

“If you cannot believe the messenger, you will not believe the message.”

(from James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner, “The First Law of Leadership,” in their textbook, The

Leadership Challenge).

Credibility and Trust are absolutely essential to lead people.

People will not follow leaders without these two traits.

Five Dimensions of Trust

Integrity – Honesty and truthfulness.

Competence – Technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills.

Consistency –Reliability, predictability, good judgment.

Loyalty – Willingness to protect someone, physically and emotionally.

Openness – Willingness to share ideas and information freely.

Ch. 9
Leading Followers

Transactional Leader – A leader who guides or motivates employees in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.

Transformational Leader – A leader who inspires followers to transcend “their own” self-interests for the good of the organization, and who is capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on the followers.

Team Leader – A leader who must learn to trust others, to give up authority and control, and to understand “when” to intervene. All teams need leadership to provide vision, inspiration, direction, and motivation to accomplish their stated objectives.

Ch. 10
Communicating Effectively

Communication – The transference of understanding and meaning.

The Communication Process (Messages being transmitted between Sender and Receiver)

Sender Encoding Channel Decoding Receiver

(Feedback)

(Message) (Message)

Feedback Loop – Information received by the Sender from a Receiver regarding a message that was sent.

One-Way Communication – Messages are FASTER, POOR QUALITY, NO FEEDBACK.

Two-Way Communication- Messages are SLOWER, HIGHER QUALITY, INCLUDE FEEDBACK.

Encoding – The conversion of a message intro symbolic form.

Decoding – A receiver’s transmission of a sender’s message.

Channel – The medium by which a message travels.

Message – Information that is sent.

Ch. 10
Communicating Effectively

Oral Communication

Supervisors rely heavily on oral communication.

Oral communication includes a “non-verbal” component that can enhance the message.

Oral (face-to-face) is the “Richest” in terms of quality of communication.

Even a phone call conveys not only the words, but also the “tone” and “mood.”

Written Communication

Best for official, long-term, or highly complex communication because there is a permanent “document” from written communication.

Electronic Communication

E-mail, text-messaging, cell phones, videoconferencing, etc.

Ch. 10
Communicating Effectively

Nonverbal Communication – Communication that is NOT spoken, written, or transmitted on a computer.

Examples: Red light, siren, body language, verbal intonations, etc.

The “Grapevine” – Informal communication (usually the “rumor mill” in most organizations). It is many times “inaccurate” because of its “gossip” nature. However, all organizations have an “informal” grapevine. It is likely never going to be eliminated, but it can be used by supervisors to discover what employees feel is important and needs attention within the organization.

Barriers to Effective Communication – What was said was NOT what was heard because perception and “personal filters” of the receiver.

Language barriers (not understood).

Listening habits (lack of attention or interest).

Lack of feedback (not providing the needed feedback for understanding importance of message).

Perception (receiver did not perceive the message correctly).

Emotions (receiver was not “emotionally” ready to receive the message).

Ch. 10
Communicating Effectively

Communication “Richness”

Richest

____ Face-to-Face Talk Face-to-Face is the “Richest.”

____ Telephone

____ E-Mail

_____ Memos, Letters

_____ Flyers, Bulletins,

General Reports

Leanest

Ch. 10
Communicating Effectively

Active Listening – A technique that requires an individual to understand the communication from the speaker’s point of view.

Four keys to effective Active Listening :

Eye contact – This is about 70/30 (70% looking at the other individual, 30% glancing away from time-to-time so as not to “stare” at the individual.

Head Nods – This involves listening to the other individual and either agreeing or disagreeing with only small head nods to show you were listening.

Innuendos – This involves making small “agreement” sounds such as

Sounds like “um…ok,” “uh-huh,” “oh – ok” and similar sounds to show

attention.

4. Reframe – Repeat, in your own words, what the other person has just told you.

This shows that you were listening to them.

Ch. 11
Developing Groups

What Is a Group? – Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives.

Formal Group – A workgroup established by the organization and given designed work assignments and established tasks.

Informal Group – A social group that forms naturally in the workplace in response to the need for social contact. Note: Informal groups have “power.” Some examples include cliques and grapevine groups.

Group Ground Rules – A given group’s shared, acceptable standards of behavior that specify how members “should” behave.

Group Norms – A given group’s shared, acceptable standards of behavior that specify how members “will” behave.

Note: All groups establish norms so that they can operate effectively

and efficiently. Breaking team norms will be met with “resistance.”

Ch. 11
Developing Groups

Groupthink – Occurs easily in highly cohesive groups, and more in

homogeneous groups that tend to “sub-optimize” in decision making.

Group Cohesiveness – The degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.

Emergent Leader – A leader who emerges within a workgroup without having formal authority in the organization (e.g., “charismatic” individuals, and individuals who are in a “position of centrality” in a communication chain can become emergent leaders).

Team – A group whose members are committed to a common purpose, have a set of specific performance goals, and hold themselves mutually accountable.

Problem Solving Teams – Teams from the same department or functional area that are involved in activities to solve specific problems.

Ch. 11
Developing Groups

Self-Managed Work Team – A type of work team that operates without a manager, and is responsible for a complete work process or segment.

Cross-Functional Team – A work team composed of individuals from various specialties (e.g., a project team operating in a matrix management structure).

Virtual Team – A type of work team that uses technology to link physically dispersed members to achieve a common goal.

How to Build Effective Teams – Key steps:

Small size – The best teams tend to be small (minimum size to do the job).

Complimentary skills – Members have different skill sets.

Common Purpose – A singular vision and reason for working together.

Specific Goals – Working together on shared goals.

Mutual Accountability – All members share equally in team performance.

Ch. 11
Developing Groups

The Five-Stage Model of Group Development (by Tuckman and Jensen)

Forming – Individuals are becoming acquainted, seeking acceptance by others in the group.

Storming – Members oftentimes start trying to assert themselves and their own positions on group issues. Can lead to disagreements and conflict.

Norming – Group starts to develop norms for acceptable behavior. This can lead to differences of opinions until certain proposed norms are agreed upon.

Performing – The group is now ready to accomplish its stated objectives and works toward this end. However, groups occasionally fall back into storming or norming stages to deal with differences of opinion, changes in direction, changes in objectives, or other issues that may prevent moving ahead to goal accomplishment.

Ch. 12
Performance Appraisal

Performance Appraisal – A review of past performance that emphasizes positive accomplishments as well as deficiencies. It is a means of helping employees improve future performance.

Performance appraisals should be conducted at least once each year.

Most performance appraisals are conducted by supervisors; however, in recent years, some organizations have added self-evaluations and peer evaluations.

Standardized forms should be used for performance appraisals.

Two important legal facts regarding performance appraisals:

Performance appraisals are increasingly being considered by courts as “binding legal contracts.”

Supervisors must avoid the appearance of prejudice or discrimination.

Ch. 12
Performance Appraisal

Three Criteria for Conducting Performance Appraisal

Individual task outcomes – Outcomes should be specified by supervisor.

Behaviors – Behaviors should be observed by supervisor.

Traits – Traits refer to predictors of performance (dependable, conscientious, confidence, etc.,) and are not as credible as outcomes and behaviors for appraisal criteria.

Note: Supervisors should be careful when appraising “traits” because these are “subjective” evaluations regarding an employee, and employees may challenge the appraisal as being unfair and biased.

Performance criteria should be gathered on a “continuing basis” (supervisor and employees both should make some notes throughout the year, and bring them to the appraisal meeting).

Ch. 12
Performance Appraisal

Performance Appraisal Methods

Absolute-Standards Measurements – Employees are not compared against any other person (e.g., written essays, critical incidents, checklists, adjective rating scales, behaviorally anchored rating scales, etc.).

Relative Standards Measurements – Employees are compared with other employees (group order ranking, individual ranking, paired comparison).

Potential Problems (Rater Errors):

Leniency Error – Positive or negative leniency; rater overstates or understates performance.

Halo Error – Tendency to rate an employee either high or low depending on impression by

the rater about the employee (likes or dislikes something about the employee).

Similarity Error – Rater sees qualities seen in themselves and rates employee favorably.

Recency Error – Rater gives greater importance to qualities seen at “end” of rating period.

Central Tendency Error – Rater has a tendency to rate employee as “average” or rates at

the “midpoint” on everything, and avoids “excellent” or “unacceptable” ratings for employee.

Ch. 12
Performance Appraisal

How to Overcome Rater Issues

Continually “Document” Employee Behavior – document, document, document to provide evidence of employee behavior.

Use Behaviorally Based Measures – much superior to “traits-based” measures.

Combine “Absolute” and “Relative” Measures – the best of both world’s.

Use Multiple Raters when Possible – use oneself, bosses, peers, team members customers and suppliers.

Strictly avoid any possible “rater biases” or “rater discrimination” as a proactive approach.

Adopt a policy of “transparency” to proactively offset any claims of rater bias.

Ch. 12
Performance Appraisal

The Counseling Process for Employees

Listen – Listen to what the employee has to say.

Identify the Problem – Try to identify the “real” problem and its causes.

Clarify Alternatives – Problems come with “options.” Explore those options with the employee for the the best one.

Come to a Resolution – Select the “best” option and gather the needed documentation to support that decision.

Agree (with Employee) on an Action Plan – Work with the employee and get their agreement on the action plan that both of you agree is the “right” course of action.

Bottomline – Make sure counseling is ethical, professional, and in the best interests of the employee.

Ch. 13
Workplace Health and Safety

Supervisors have a legal and moral responsibility to make sure the workplace is safe for all employees.

Occupational Safety and Health Act – Provides legislation regarding specific health standards, and authorized inspections to ensure that standards are met, and empowered OSHA enforce standards.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) – Empowered by the Occupational Safety and Health Act to police organizations’ compliance, and required employers to keep records of illnesses and injuries, and to calculate accident ratios.

Ch. 13
Workplace Health and Safety

OSHA Enforcement Priorities (Five Items):

Imminent danger.

Serious accidents that have occurred within the past 8 hours.

Current employee complaints.

Inspections of target industries with a high injury ratio.

Random inspections.

OSHA Form 300

The basis for the record keeping for the OSH Act is the OSHA Form 300 (

(See Exhibit 13-2).

Employers are required to keep these safety records for five years.

Any work-related illness, no matter how insignificant, must be reported on Form 300.

Incidence Rate – A measure of the number of injuries, illnesses, or lost work days as

it relates to a common base rate of 100 full-time employees.

Ch. 13
Workplace Health and Safety

OSHA Punitive Actions

An OSHA inspector has the right to levy a fine against an organization for non-compliance of OSHA Standards.

The maximum penalty (passed in 1970), was $10,000 per occurrence, per day.

The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (passed in 1990), stated the penalty could increase to $70,000 if the violation is severe, willful, and repetitive.

In 2009, OSHA increased the fine again. The largest penalty assessed was $81,340,000 levied against BP Products North America.

Does OSHA Work? The answer is YES!

Ch. 13
Workplace Health and Safety

What causes workplace-related accidents?

The human factor is responsible for the vast majority of accidents.

How can accidents be prevented?

The answer lies in education, skills training, engineering, protective devices, and regulation enforcement.

Sick Buildings

Office environments that contain harmful airborne chemicals, asbestos, or indoor pollution.

Many older buildings are undergoing “asbestos removal” procedures as they are being remodeled.

Asbestos in buildings has been linked to cancer, and much legal action has taken place to have this substance removed.

Ch. 13
Workplace Health and Safety

Stress – A person’s adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physiological demands on that person.

Three ways stress revels itself to an individual:

Psychological – Increased tension and anxiety, boredom, nervousness, anger, memory deficiencies, procrastination.

Physiological – changes in metabolism, increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, headaches, increased risk of heart attacks or strokes.

Behavioral – Changes in eating habits, increased smoking, drinking, or substance consumption, rapid speech, sleep disorders.

How can stress be reduced? Adopt a comprehensive stress management and personal wellness program (coping skills, weight control, blood pressure control, nutrition., and overall physical fitness).

Ch. 14
Conflict, Politics, Discipline
and Negotiation

Is all conflict bad? No, all conflict is NOT bad, it just needs to be “managed.” Conflict is a “natural” phenomenon of organizational life. It cannot be completely eliminated. It can be managed by using Basic Techniques (Exhibit 14-2).

Basic Conflict Management Techniques

Avoidance – refusing to engage an individual in a potential conflict situation.

Accommodation – Maintaining “harmonious” relationships by placing the other person’s needs above your own.

Forcing – Attempting to satisfy one’s own needs at the expense of the other person, or using one’s “authority” to force someone into submission.

Compromise – An approach that requires each party to give up something to reach an agreement.

Collaboration – An approach in which all parties seek to satisfy their own needs, as well as satisfying the needs of the other parties (considered the “BEST” approach to conflict resolution).

Ch. 14
Conflict, Politics, Discipline
and Negotiation

What is politics?

Politics relates to who gets what, when, and how. It consists of the actions taken to influence others to agree with one’s own positions.

Can political behavior be ethical ? Political behavior can be ethical as long as it:

Is consistent with the organization’s goals.

Respects the rights of other parties.

Provides equity and justice for all involved.

Organizational Culture – The “Shared” values, vision, attitudes, norms, and behaviors within a given organization.

Note: No two organizations share these same ideals.

Ch. 14
Conflict, Politics, Discipline
and Negotiation

Progressive Discipline – An appropriate method to “discipline” employees for undesirable behaviors in the workplace (Four Steps):

Verbal Warning – This is the “first” warning. A reprimand for a specific, unacceptable behavior which is kept in the employee’s personnel file.

Written Warning – This is the “second” warning for the “same” specific, unacceptable behavior. It is placed in the employee’s personnel file also.

Suspension (without pay) – This is the “third” warning for the same unacceptable behavior. Length of suspension is to be determined by the supervisor. It is also placed in the employee’s personnel file.

Termination – This is the “fourth” and “last” step in the Progressive Discipline Process. This step has become necessary because the employee has not chosen to correct the undesirable behavior that caused the first three steps in this process.

Ch. 14
Conflict, Politics, Discipline
and Negotiation

“Employment-at-Will” – Under this law, an employer can dismiss an employee “for good cause, for no cause, or even for a bad cause, without being guilty of a legal wrong.” An employee can also quit a job for the same reasons (no notice required). Only certain states in the U.S. have this law (Texas is one of the states that has this law). Exception: a contract with an employer.

Negotiation – Two Types of Bargaining:

Distributive Bargaining – A negotiating process that operates under zero-sum conditions: any gain made is at the expense of the other person, and vice versa (“win-lose” solutions).

Integrative Bargaining – A negotiating process that operates under the assumption that there is at least one settlement that can create a “win-win” solution.

Ch. 15
Change Management

Change – An alteration of an organization’s environment, structure, technology, or people.

Revolutionary Change – Major organizational change that involves making “radical” change (re-engineering), usually on a large scale affecting the entire organization (oftentimes, replacing top executives).

Evolutionary Change – Smaller organizational change (incremental change) that does not involve major organizational change. Focused on improving various parts of an organization (e.g., continuous change).

Change Agent – A person who acts as a catalyst and assumes the responsibility for overseeing the change process.

Organization Development (OD) – The process of making systematic change within an organization. Oftentimes done by a change agent

Ch. 15
Change Management

Three-Step Change Process (by Kurt Lewin)

Unfreezing Changing Refreezing

A model that allows for successful change by requiring “unfreezing” of the status quo (equilibrium state), “changing” to a new state, and “refreezing” the new change to make it permanent.

Unfreezing the equilibrium state is achieved by: (1) increasing driving forces for change, (2) decreasing restraining forces (forces against change), combining these two approaches.

Note: Forces against change are typically stronger than the forces for change. Reason: People resist change because it creates “uncertainty” and “fear of the unknown.”

Ch. 15
Change Management

Contemporary View of Change – The contemporary view of change realizes environments are both uncertain and dynamic.

Why Do People Resist Change? (Exhibit 15-3):

Threat to interpersonal relationships.

Habit.

Threat to job or income.

Fear of the unknown.

Selective perception.

Threat to expertise.

Threat to established power relationships.

Ch. 15
Change Management

How are Creativity and Innovation Related?

Creativity – The ability to combine ideas in a unique way, or to make unusual associations between ideas.

Innovation – The process of turning a creative idea into a useful product, service, or method of operation.

What is Involved in Innovation?

This involves creativity which can be viewed as a fourfold process consisting of:

Perception.

Incubation.

Inspiration.

Innovation.

Ch. 16
Supervision and Labor

Labor Relations – All activities within a company that involve dealing with a union and its members.

Union – An organization that represents workers and seeks to protect their interests through collective bargaining.

Why Employees Join Unions:

Higher wages and benefits.

Greater job security.

Influence on work rules.

Compulsory membership.

Note – Unions are typically “highly assertive” in their dealings with management – always trying to negotiate with management to acquire every possible advantage for their members.

Ch. 16
Supervision and Labor

Types of Union Shops

Union Shop – An arrangement that stipulates that employers, although free to hire whom they choose, may retain only union members. All employees, must after a stipulated time period, join the union.

Agency Shop – An agreement that requires non-union employees to pay the union a sum of money equal to union fees and dues as a condition of continuing employment.

Open Shop – An arrangement in which joining a union is totally voluntary.

Closed Shop – An arrangement in which the union “controlled” the labor source (Under this arrangement, individuals joined the union, were trained by the union, and sent to work for an employer by the union – essentially, the union acted as a “clearinghouse” of employees).

Ch. 16
Supervision and Labor

Labor Legislation

National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) – A group that has primary responsibility for conducting elections to determine union representation and to interpret and apply the law against unfair labor practices.

Wagner Act (1935) – Also known as the National Labor Relations Act, this act gave employees the legitimate right to form and join unions and to engage in collective bargaining.

Taft-Hartley Act (1947) – A law that specified unfair union labor practices, and declared the “closed shop” to be illegal.

Landrum-Griffin Act (1959) – Also known as the Labor and Management Reporting and Disclosure Act, this legislation protects union members from possible wrongdoing on the part of their unions – requiring unions to disclose their financial statements.

Ch. 16
Supervision and Labor

How Employees are Unionized

Authorization Card – A card signed by prospective union members indicating that they are interested in having a union election held at their work site.

The union must secure signed Authorization Cards from at least 30% of the employees it wishes to represent.

Collective Bargaining

A process for developing a union contract, which includes preparing to negotiate the contract, negotiating the contract, and administering the contract after it has been ratified.

Ch. 16
Supervision and Labor

Strikes vs. Lockouts

Economic Strike – An impasse that results from labor and management’s inability to agree on the wages, hours, and terms and conditions of a new contract.

Wildcat Strike – An “illegal” strike in which employees refuse to work during the term of a binding contract, often as a result of ambiguities in the current contract, or because of something management has done.

Lockout – A company action equivalent to a strike, when management denies unionized employees access to their jobs.