1.1 Major Research Areas in Psychology
Psychology is a diverse discipline, encompassing a wide range of approaches to questions about why people do the things that they do. The common thread among all of these approaches is the scientific study of human behavior. So, while psychology might not be the only field to speculate on the causes of human behavior—philosophers have been doing this for millennia—psychology is distinguished by its reliance on the scientific method to draw conclusions. Later, the chapter will examine the meaning and implications of this scientific perspective. This section discusses the major research areas within the field of psychology, along with samples of the types of research questions asked by each one.
Biopsychology
Biopsychology, as the name implies, combines research questions and techniques from both biology and psychology. It is typically defined as the study of connections between biological systems (including the brain, hormones, and neurotransmitters) and thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. As a result, the research conducted by biopsychologists often overlaps research in other areas—but with a focus on biological processes. Biopsychologists are often interested in the way interactions between biological systems and thoughts, feelings, and behaviors affect the ability to treat disease, as the following questions reflect: What brain systems are involved in the formation of memories? Can Alzheimer’s be cured or prevented through early intervention? How does long-term exposure to toxins such as lead influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors? How easily can the brain recover after a stroke?
In one example of this approach, Kim and colleagues (2010) investigated changes in brain anatomy among new mothers for the first three months following delivery. These authors were intrigued by the numerous changes new mothers undergo in attention, memory, and motivation; they speculated that these changes might be associated with changes in brain structure. As expected, new mothers showed increases in grey matter (i.e., increased complexity) in several brain areas associated with maternal motivation and behavior. In addition, the more these brain areas developed, the more positively these women felt toward their newborn children. Thus, Kim et al.’s study sheds light on the potential biological processes involved in the mother–infant bond.
Cognitive Psychology
Whereas biopsychology focuses on studying the brain, cognitive psychology studies the mind. It is typically defined as the study of internal mental processes, including the ways that people think, learn, remember, speak, perceive, and so on. Cognitive psychologists are primarily interested in the ways that people navigate and make sense of the world. Research questions in this field might ask: How do our minds translate input from the five senses into a meaningful picture of the world? How do we form memories of emotional versus mundane experiences? What draws our attention in a complex environment? What is the best way to teach children to read?
In one example of this approach, Foulsham, Cheng, Tracy, Henrich, and Kingstone (2010) were interested in what kinds of things people pay attention to in a complex social scene. The world around us is chock-full of information, but we can only pay attention to a relatively thin slice of it. Foulsham and colleagues were particularly interested in where our attention is directed when we observe groups of people. They answered this question by asking people to watch videos of a group discussion and using tools to track eye movements. It turned out that people in this study spent most of their time looking at the most dominant member of the group, suggesting that individuals are wired to pay attention to those in positions of power. Thus, this study sheds light on one of the ways that people make sense of the world.
Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology is defined as the systematic study of physical, social, and cognitive changes over the human life span. Although this field initially focused on childhood development, many researchers now study changes and key stages over a person’s entire life span. Developmental psychologists look at a wide range of phenomena related to physical, social, and cognitive change, including: How do children bond with their primary caregiver(s)? What are our primary needs and goals at each stage of life? Why do some cognitive skills decline in old age? At what ages do infants develop basic motor skills?
In one example of this approach, Hill and Tyson (2009) explored the connection between children’s school achievement and their parents’ involvement with the school. In other words: Do children perform better when their parents are actively involved in school activities? The authors addressed this question by combining results from several studies into one data set. Across 50 studies, the answer to this question was yes—children do better in school if their parents are involved. Hill and Tyson’s study sheds light on a key predictor of academic achievement during an important developmental period.
Social Psychology
Thomas Northcut/Photodisc/Thinkstock
Social psychologist Norman Triplett’s study of competition among cyclists led to conclusions about how people influence one another.
Social psychology, which attempts to study behavior in a broader social context, is typically defined as the study of the ways humans’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by other people. This broad perspective allows social psychologists to tackle a wide range of research questions, such as: What kinds of things do individuals look for in selecting romantic partners? Why do people stay in bad relationships? How do other people shape individuals’ sense of who they are? When and why do people help in emergencies?
Norman Triplett (1898) conducted the first published social psychology study at the end of the 19th century. Triplett had noticed that professional cyclists tended to ride faster when racing against other cyclists than when competing in solo time trials. He tested this observation in a controlled laboratory setting, asking people to do a number of tasks either alone or next to another person. His results (and countless other studies since) revealed that people worked faster in groups, suggesting that other people can have definite and concrete influences on human behavior.
Clinical Psychology
The area of clinical psychology focuses on understanding the best ways to treat psychological disorders. It is typically defined as the study of best practices for understanding, treating, and preventing distress and dysfunction. Clinical psychologists engage in both the assessment and the treatment of psychological disorders, as the following research questions suggest: What is the most effective treatment for depression? How can we help people overcome post-traumatic stress disorder following a traumatic event? Should anxiety disorders be treated with drugs, therapy, or a combination? What is the most reliable way to diagnose schizophrenia?
A study by Kleim and Ehlers (2008) offers an example of this approach. The study attempted to understand the risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder, a prolonged reaction to a severe traumatic experience. Kleim and Ehlers found that assault victims who tend to form less specific memories about life in general might be more likely to develop a disorder in response to trauma than victims who tend to form detailed memories. People who tend to form vague memories may have fewer resources to draw on in trying to reconnect with their daily life after a traumatic event. This study, then, sheds light on a possible pathway contributing to the development of a psychological disorder.
Applied Research Areas
The research areas listed thus far represent the majority of basic research within psychology, but the list is not exhaustive. A great deal of additional psychological research focuses on understanding human behavior in a more applied context. For example, the field of health psychology applies psychological principles to the study of health, wellness, and illness. Health psychologists often have a background in either clinical or social psychology and use these insights toward a broader understanding of why people get sick. One major insight from this field is that the quality and quantity of our relationships with other people can actually have a dramatic impact on our physical health. Close relationships can provide practical support in times of need (e.g., making it easier to get to the doctor), as well as making stressful events seem less stressful (for review, see Newman & Roberts, 2012).
Similarly, the field of industrial–organizational psychology (often abbreviated as I/O psychology) applies psychological principles to the scientific study of human behavior in the workplace. I/O psychologists often have a background in social or cognitive psychology and generally help organizations function more effectively by improving employee satisfaction, performance, and safety of employees. One major insight from this field shows that people are often more productive in the workplace if given more freedom over their time. This model started in the high-tech industry. For example, Google employees have game rooms around the office; the company requires workers to spend time each week developing “side” projects unrelated to their main responsibilities. This approach makes employees feel more valued as individuals, more dedicated to the company, and thus more industrious in completing their work.
As a final example, the field of school psychology applies psychological principles to the goal of helping children learn effectively. School psychologists, who are typically trained in developmental, clinical, and educational psychology, work to meet the learning and behavioral health needs of students. More so than the previous examples, school psychologists play a “practitioner” role, applying their broad knowledge base to provide psychological diagnosis, conduct health promotions, evaluate services, and conduct interventions with individual students as needed.
To learn more about all of these areas, see the American Psychological Association’s collection of web resources: .